I was invited by the Crafts Council to take part in a round-table discussion on the subject of environmental sustainability in the precious metal sector. I was very excited to have been invited and the meeting took place last week, 25th January 2023 in Birmingham at the STEAMhouse.

Image Credit: Jade Mellor

Participants:

• Caroline Jackman, Head of Craft Business Skills at Crafts Council; Chair of the Meeting

• Toby Cotterill, independent designer/maker,

• Hendrike Barz-Meltzer, independent designer/maker

• Rebecca Skeels, independent designer/ and senior lecturer at Birmingham University

• Jade Mellor, independent designer/maker and manager at Gill Wing Gallery, London

• Eliza Higginbottom of Yunus and Eliza, independent designer/maker

• Rebecca van Rooijen, Co-founder and Editor of Benchpeg,

• Fran Onumah, independent designer /maker

• Paul Wells, independent designer / maker and lecturer

• Chris Corti, metallurgist and gold expert

• Greg Valerio MBE, Social & Ecopreneur, Author, Speaker, Ethical Jeweller

• Sonny Bailey-Aird, independent designer / maker

• Jonathan Stokes, Bishopsland Educational Trust

The meeting had been organised as a direct result of the annual Crafts Council Maker Needs Survey (2021), in which 85% of makers expressed the wish for further guidance on being more environmentally sustainable in their business, with “a majority of respondents indicating environmental considerations are important to them.”

As such, various round table discussions were organised, each centring on a different discipline and these were to be held in 2022/23 with the results to be published in the spring of 2023.

For our meeting, Caroline had invited professionals with diverse areas of expertise in the precious metal industry to ensure a rich discussion and outcome. She had also circulated a number of questions to be discussed prior to the meeting.

These covered: our understanding of being ethical; what we were already doing in our business; the barriers in our way as well as our motivations for adopting an ethical stance in our work; how much we are influenced in our ethical approach by our customers; our vision for a more ethical future in our work as well as our needs to achieve said vision.

With some participants more knowledgeable in the field of sustainable and ethical practice than others, the round nevertheless provided a positive atmosphere of equality that allowed for the frank exchange of views and thoughts.

Whilst many issues were discussed, my personal favourite comments were:

• Making the precious metal industries sustainable and ethical requires leadership.

• This leadership should ideally come from industry and established institutions but in their absence, it is down to everyone to make a difference.

• For this we need a clear set of values, encompassing, for example, equality, justice and a priority of the poor and environment over resources.

• We not only need leadership, but also funding to enable change to take place; for research to be undertaken, these kind of talks to take place, etc.

• We need existing organisations, institutions and individuals, who have already done pioneering work in this field, to cooperate, to share their findings and make them easily accessible to all in the field.

• The biggest players in the industry, such as the Goldsmiths’ Company, need to become leaders in the field of ethical jewellery, but for that to happen it needs to become more open to change and to an increased inclusion of women.

I look forward to reading the summaries and findings of these discussions and am excited about what changes it may lead to in the future.

Hendrike

In July I had planned to write a blog on Keum-Boo, however, when I got around to writing it in August it became quite long.

I therefore divided it into three different ones: The first was about Hallmarking (Blog 7), the second (Blog 8) about the Keum-Boo process and this, the third, is on the subject of gold plating.

Both issues of hallmarking and gold plating are relevant to discussing Keum-Boo and I wanted to explain my thoughts on this.

Gold Plating Process

An oval brooch and ear studs from my current collection using the Keum-Boo technique.

Plating is an electrochemical process in which a thin layer of a chosen metal is deposited onto a base metal. Most often plating is done in gold, but is also done in rhodium or non-precious metals which may be applied as an undercoat before the gold is applied. In this blog I will mainly concentrate on gold plating.

The thickness of this plated metal layer can vary and is measured in micrometres, or short microns.

1 micron (1 μm) = 0.001 mm (As a comparison, a human hair is circa 75 μm thick.)

Before any gold plating can be done, the piece has to be thoroughly cleaned in various stages and this involves solvents and abrasive processes, after which the piece is dipped in hydrochloric acid. The now thoroughly clean piece is then lowered into a bath containing metal salts. This is the actual plating process:

“An electric current is placed through this bath and is directed at the object. The current helps to dissolve the metal molecules and deposit them onto the object in the bath. The longer items are left in the bath with the current, the thicker the plating level will be.”[1]

The metal salts used in this solution are created by combining metals and acids. The neutralising reaction of an acid and a base results in metal salts. As acids Aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid) or Potassium gold cyanide can be used (see image on the left). When gold is dissolved in Aqua regia toxic fumes are created as a by-product. Potassium gold cyanide is highly toxic and its handling can result in poisoning through contact with eyes or skin and through inhalation or ingestion.

Disposal of these toxic acids is difficult and problematic for the environment.

In one of my past collections I used a specialist to have my pieces gold and rhodium plated. However, becoming aware of the environmental impact of gold plating I wanted to avoid this process altogether and so I looked for alternatives.

After some research I came across the Korean Keum-Boo technique and liked its straight forward process, the potential it offered for creating patterns but also, most importantly, that it appeared to be a clean process.[2]

In simple terms, the Keum-Boo process describes the bonding of 24ct gold foil (which is 13 microns thick) through heat and pressure to silver.[3]

Gold Plating Names and Thicknesses

In my previous Blog 7 on Hallmarking I noted that in the UK silver articles containing gold can only be hallmarked as containing gold when the gold layer is above 100 microns.[4]

Consequently, the Hallmarking Act does not distinguish between the different thicknesses of the gold plated layer. Whether the gold layer is 0.175 microns or, as in Keum-Boo, 13 microns – both are regarded as plating.

This has a bearing on my pieces in which I use Keum-Boo. As the gold layer is 13 microns thick – well below the required 100 microns - they can only be hallmarked as silver.

As the price of gold has risen over the years, jewellery made from solid gold is unaffordable for many. Adding a thin layer of gold over a base metal to give the appearance of gold but without the high price is therefore a very attractive option for many customers.

It can, however, be very confusing to distinguish between the different labels used by jewellers to describe their gold-plated pieces. They may come across words such as, Vermeil, Rolled Gold, Gold-filled, heavy gold plating, flash plating and of course Keum-Boo. Below, therefore, a brief explanation of the different terms:

Beforehand, however, a few notes to explain various differences.

Base material

As described above, in the gold plating process, the gold layer is added over a base metal. In cheap pieces the base metal is often copper, brass, zinc, etc., whilst in more expensive items it tends to be silver. Plating is also often applied to a gold base – a good example here are white gold rings which are plated with rhodium to give them the white lustre so desired.

Plating thickness

Different pieces of jewellery are plated in different thicknesses, dependent on their use. Pieces that are subject to greater wear and tear, for example rings, are plated more heavily, whilst earrings have a thinner coating. Earrings are typically plated with 0.175 - 1 microns, necklaces usually with 2 microns and rings with 3 - 5 microns.

When buying jewellery, it is worth bearing in mind that plating rubs off eventually and this is especially so for pieces that have to withstand a lot of wear and tear, for example rings and especially wedding rings. When the plating rubs off, the base metal is revealed and the piece has to be re-plated to restore its original beauty.

Legal requirements of gold plating

Countries have different legal requirements when it comes to hallmarking and the description of gold plated articles. This can be quite a confusing aspect when shopping online for jewellery as it may not be immediately clear where the company is based (and what the legal requirements there are), or whether the customers of a particular company are mainly based in another country.

I have, for example, come across online companies based in the UK, which also trade abroad. Their description of certain gold-filled articles states the adherence to certain legal requirements which - although they may apply in countries, such as the US - clearly do not exist in the UK.

Whilst in countries, such as the US and Canada, the use of certain words describing plating is defined by law, there are no such requirements in the UK. In a conversation with a specialist from the Birmingham Assay Office, the gentleman explained that there is no legal minimum or maximum thickness when it comes to plating.

There are, however, regulations as to how a piece can be hallmarked and described and this must be done so as to avoid any confusion for the customer. In the UK, all gold layers under 100 microns are regarded as plating and therefore cannot be hallmarked as gold.[5]

Vermeil

The word Vermeil is used to describe gold-plated articles. Whilst in the UK there are no such legal requirements, in the US this word can only be used to describe pieces of jewellery that are made of silver and which have been plated with a thickness of at least 2.5 microns and with at least 10ct gold.[6]

Gold-Filled or Rolled Gold

The term gold-filled or rolled gold is a little confusing. The metal is not literally ‘filled’ with gold but a layer of gold is mechanically bonded to the base metal. This base metal is usually brass and the gold layer can be of any gold alloy, but is often 14ct gold.

Again, US laws define the legal gold content of such articles which are to be sold in the US. The thickness of the gold layer is not given in microns but is expressed as a ratio of the overall weight of the piece. The gold content of a gold-filled item has to be 1/20 of the whole weight or, in other words, 5% of the total weight of the metal item.

This is quite a confusing method of describing the thickness of the gold layer and attempts to calculate the actual thickness concluded that the gold contents of the layer would roughly equate to the layer of gold in the Keum-Boo technique.[7] The fact remains that the base layer is brass, which is an alloy of copper (66%) and zinc (34%), chosen presumably because of the similar colour to gold which would hide any partial wear of the gold layer.

Due to the complex manufacturing process of gold-filled metals, articles made from this material are usually mass-produced.

Gold-filled jewellery can be hallmarked in the US – not the UK – and the hallmark would read, for example: 14K 1/20 GF. This would translate as follows: the piece is coated with a layer of 14ct gold to a thickness of 1/20 of its total weight, i.e. is Gold-Filled.

Heavy gold plating

This term refers to the thickness of the gold plated layer, specifically a thickness above circa 2.5 microns.

Flash plating

Flash plating is an extremely thin layer of gold that would wear off very quickly and refers to a thickness of less than 0.125 microns.

Silver gilt

Silver gilt or gilded silver refers to the coating of silver with a fine layer of gold. It is often interchangeably used with the word ‘vermeil’, mentioned above. The word ‘gilding’ is also used to describe the covering of various other materials (wood, ceramic, metal) with gold leaf. Gold leaf refers to ~23ct gold with a thickness of circa 0.125 microns.

Fast Jewellery

Photo of costume jewellery by Martin de Arriba on Unsplash

Considering the above, it is important to note that gold plating also has a significant environmental impact – in addition to the toxic chemicals used in the process - through its role in the creation of fast jewellery. Fast jewellery describes cheap jewellery sold by High Street chains, which imitate more expensive items, for example, by being gold-plated.

Ruth MacGilp who wrote this article for Eco Warrior Princess, an online media brand, sums up the problematic nature of fast jewellery:

“Despite this progress towards more conscious collections, ultimately fast jewellery by its very definition is about quantity over quality. With ‘drops’ of shiny new pieces every week and prices lower than a cup of coffee, we’re lured into the familiar trap of hyperconsumption. Our broken tortoiseshell earrings and tangled pendants simply pile up in landfill, soon to be replaced with something more worthy of the Instagram like button.”[8]

To illustrate the above, I did a quick online search of the jewellery section of a well-known High Street fashion brand and found a pack of nine gold-coloured rings for £6.99. Information about the materials used was not very detailed. It stated they were: Metal 55%, Steel 45%. This does not make any sense to me, nor is it particularly helpful.

One can expect the thin gold layer of these rings to rub off in a matter of weeks, after which the rings will probably be never worn again. Unethical, non-transparent working conditions or processes during the manufacture of these pieces further add to the problem.

Keum-Boo vs Gold plating

In summary, it is clear from the above that there are serious concerns with gold plating. From the use of toxic chemicals, such as Potassium gold cyanide, to its environmental impact through the creation of Fast Jewellery, gold plating plays a huge role in how the jewellery industry affects the environment.

How does the Keum-Boo technique that I use in my pieces compare to gold plating? I believe the advantages of this technique over the plating process are as follows:

1. The Keum-Boo process[9] has very little impact on the environment. The chemicals I use in this technique are baking soda, methylated spirit, pumice powder and citric acid (which I use as my jeweller’s pickle).

2. The required heat comes from an electric hot-plate and the necessary pressure from the agate burnisher and my hand.

3. The 24ct gold foil I use in this process originates from a Japanese company which recycles gold from the dental and electronics industries.

4. The gold foil is 13 microns thick – up to 10 times thicker than standard gold plating. This thickness ensures that the gold layer will not rub off easily and will last a long time.

5. When designing the piece and the patterns thereon, I pay special attention to the wear and tear of the item. For example, I would not add the gold foil on such parts that are subject to a lot of wear and tear, such as ring shanks where the gold would rub over time.

6. Whilst the process of this technique can be compared to gold-filled or rolled gold, my pieces are made from either recycled Sterling Silver or recycled Fine Silver and not brass as in gold-filled articles.

7. Whilst I would be able to cover an entire piece in gold foil with the Keum-Boo technique, the main reason for using this technique is that it gives me the artistic freedom to create patterns on my pieces using the beautiful colours of both metals, which are otherwise difficult to create. Gold plating could not achieve this.

8. The jewellery I create is made by myself in my own studio and I try to be as transparent and eco-friendly as I can in my working practices.

9. I make small collections or one-off pieces and each piece is made so that its design and materials can speak for themselves and will stand the test of time.

Thank you for reading! I hope this information was useful. If you have any comments or question, do let me know.

Examples of pieces from my current collection Interrupted Patterns in which I use the Keum-Boo technique. Click on the images for further information.

[1] https://sciencing.com/causes-gold-discoloration-6158003.html

[2] Read my Blog 6 ‘Interrupted Patterns’ on the significance of patterns in my most recent collection.

[3] For a more detailed description see Blog 8 on Keum-Boo.

[4] In such cases, along with the silver hallmark, a part-mark will be applied to the piece, stating the hallmark of the second metal.

[5] See here my Blog 7 on Hallmarking, contact any of the Assay Offices or see the Guidance Notes on Hallmarking.

[6] The US Code of Federal Regulations 16, Part 23.4 on the Misuse of the Word ‘Vermeil’ states “(b) An industry product may be described or marked as “vermeil” if it consists of a base of sterling silver coated or plated on all significant surfaces with gold, or gold alloy of not less than 10 karat fineness, that is of reasonable durability 33 and a minimum thickness throughout equivalent to two and one half (2 1/2) microns (or approximately 100/1,000,000ths of an inch) of fine gold.”

[7] The calculations are further complicated by the different special gravity of the base materials (to calculate weight) and the use of different gold alloys in the comparison. Keum-Boo uses 24ct gold, 13μm thick over a silver base; whilst gold-filled articles use, for example, 14ct gold over a brass base.

[8] https://ecowarriorprincess.net/2020/06/fast-jewellery-true-cost-of-costume-ethical-pieces/ (Ruth MacGilp, 16 June 2020)

[9] For details on the process see Blog 8.

Last week I took part in the Fair Luxury Open House Zoom session on Provenance Power: The Positive Impact of Traceable Gold. It promised to be interesting, given the current background of war between Russia and Ukraine and the relevant question whether Russia may use its gold reserves and gemstones to finance its war.[1]

These Open Houses have been a great source for understanding what makes jewellery ethical. I will use this third blog to clarify my thinking on some aspects. There are many people more expert in this field and the article below is just a starting point for me to grasp the different concepts.

 ***

To make jewellery ethical is a complex task and requires knowledge in diverse and multifaceted areas. Thus far my efforts have concentrated on the small-scale, manageable aspects of my business, such as studio practices and the sourcing of some materials. As I mainly use silver, little gold and no gemstones, my knowledge of the various ethical standards and initiatives was limited.

Fairtrade / Fairmined

Last year I investigated the conditions for signing up to using Fairmined gold/silver as I was hoping to include more gold in my work. After careful consideration I concluded then that it would have to remain a future aim until I could be sure to financially warrant the cost of using this scheme. I turned instead to the newly-established Single Mine Origin (SMO) gold, offered by Betts Metals.

I remained interested to see what the community of ethical jewellers thought about SMO gold and was keen to hear the discussion at the up-coming Fair Luxury Open House, which was to include a speaker from Betts talking about SMO gold. The other speakers were Rachel Brass from Levin Sources, and Greg Valerio. Rachel Brass is the Project Director for USAID's Zahabu Safi (Clean Gold) Project. This project “aims to develop and deliver activities to establish a commercially-viable, responsible and conflict-free supply chain for artisanal and small scale (ASM) gold from eastern DRC.”[2]

Greg Valerio, a veteran in the ethical jewellery movement, spoke about his involvement in the PeaceGold© initiative, also in eastern DRC, that aims to establish local gold mining cooperatives that benefit the community and which employ decommissioned militia men, thus also acting as a peacebuilding project.

It was interesting to note that these speakers all had personal involvement in the Fairtrade/Fairmined (FT/FM) programs that have now existed for 15 years. However, they all seemed to imply that although the FT/FM standards presented a perfect model in terms of standards for small-scale and artisanal mining it was sometimes difficult to apply this ‘all-or-nothing’ approach in other settings.

Kyle Abram recently wrote an interesting article entitled ‘Are Fairmined and Fairtrade Gold Elitist?’[3] Although he concluded in the end that they are not, he made various thought-provoking points and seemed to support the above idea that the FT/FM standards are perhaps too rigid and need re-adjusting. He cited statistics to support his thinking which I briefly elaborate on below.

According to the report 2020 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector,[4] there are currently 44.75 million people in 80 countries who rely on Artisanal and Small Scale Mining (ASM) as their main source of income. Taken together with all those who work in related industries, there are 134 million people whose livelihoods depend on ASM.

Whilst it is difficult to get exact numbers, at least 30 % of these people are women. To quote the World Bank 2020 report cited above, “Quite simply, women are not being counted.”[5] Although women make up an essential part of the workforce – often working in the processing of the minerals – there are disagreements on definitions of what constitutes a ‘miner’ and as a consequence women may just not be included in the count. Women of course also suffer “Adverse side effects of mercury use, unequal pay for similar work, sexual harassment, and inability to own land or mining titles without permissions […].”[6]

Abrahm notes further that of all small scale miners “100% are Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)”[7] – an important point if we consider the issue of racism within the industry.

In terms of output it is worth noting that ASM produces 25% of all globally mined diamonds, 20% of all gold and 80% of all sapphires.

These figures become even more interesting when contrasted with data of large-scale industrial mining operations, which supply the majority of these minerals. Compared to the number of people working in ASM, there are only 7 million people who are employed in industrial mining (please note that this data is from 2013).[8] 

With respect to the Fairtrade/Fairmined programs Abram makes the further point that these operate in 15 mines in Peru and Columbia and support overall 1,800 miners. He questions the success of these programs when contrasted against the number of 44.74 million people working in ASM globally.

Looking at these statistics in context highlights the need that the minerals we use as jewellers should ultimately benefit those who mine them, in other words those circa 45 million artisanal and small scale miners and their communities worldwide.

Another point worth making in reference to the locations in which FT/FM operate (Peru and Columbia) is by looking at a map that shows the locations by density of ASM operations.[9] What stands out are the countries in dark pink with more than 1.5 million people working in ASM.[10] These countries are DRC in Africa and China, India and Indonesia in Asia. This explains possibly the focus of the above three speakers on Africa and the need to establish structures there that support ASM communities.

SMO Gold

Back at the Open House, Duncan Marshall of Betts Metals was a representative of corporate mining and spoke about Single Mine Origin (SMO) gold – their new project. The gold is mainly sourced from their Yanfolila Gold Mine in Mali and the company promises “socially and environmentally responsible gold mines and ensuring such projects are beneficial to their host communities.”[11] The idea of SMO gold is to provide full traceability of the gold, from mine to finished product. So, when purchasing gold I am given a QR code which traces this gold batch to the mine it was produced from.

The big difference between SMO gold and Fairtrade/Fairmined gold is the size of the mines and who operates and benefits from them. Whilst FT/FM miners are local individuals working with little and low-tech resources in rivers and pits to find gold, SMO gold is mined by a large corporation with great financial backing.[12]

Bearing in mind that Betts Metals also offer FT/FM gold, a member of the audience at the Open House questioned Marshall about SMO’s position vis-à-vis FT/FM gold. Marshall defended his company’s efforts by stating that corporate gold mining was a fact (given the quantities mined) and whilst it would continue to exist, SMO gold was an ethical alternative to other corporate mines. He acknowledged the continued value, aims and achievements of the FT/FM programs but explained that SMO was trying to fill a gap in terms of ease of access and affordability to jewellers who would like to use ethical materials but could not quite afford to sign up to becoming a licenced FT/FM jewellers.

Another criticism of SMO gold comes from Edward Fleming of the Ethical Jewellery blog. In an article[13] he elucidates one of the principles of FT/FM gold – the requirement of external independent audits of the mining operation. These ensure that the FT/FM standards are upheld and provide assurance to the buyer of the gold.

The SMO and Hummingbird Resources[14] website have perhaps not been updated but they differ in the information they offer. Between the times of publication of Fleming’s article in October 2021, and now the wording on the SMO website seems to have changed. It now states:

“Rather than creating a brand-new standard, SMO uses existing major assurance standards to define a responsible source. The standard used for the current SMO mines is the World Gold Council’s Responsible Gold Mining Principles (RGMPs). The International Council on Mining and Metals Mining Principles (ICMM) has equivalency with the RGMPs and would also be deemed as a suitable responsibility standard by SMO. The Mines signed up to these assurance standards undergo independent auditing to ensure they employ international best practice across all areas of their operation.” [15]

Hummingbird Resources does not appear on the ICMM website as a member and it is therefore difficult to establish the meaning behind ‘signed up to these standards’. As Fleming also points out, the World Gold Council is a marketing organisation for the gold industry and therefore hardly an independent organisation. SMO needs to be clearer about who the independent auditors are and their auditing process to ensure consumer confidence in its product.

African Initiatives

Going back to the other current initiatives taking place in Africa, Kyle Abrams in his article and Greg Valerio in his Open House presentation both illustrated the human perspective of ASM in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Valerio talked about the desires of ex-militia men to decommission their weapons and withdraw from conflict to build sustainable futures for themselves by building structures to enable them to make a living through gold mining. The peacebuilding effects these projects could have and consequent wider impact on local communities are immense.

In his article Abrams (commenting on a visit to the DRC project Zahabu Safi) also provided examples of the complex situations on the ground that do not easily fit the ‘gold’ standards of FT/FM. Whilst child labour should be condemned for example, he quotes a local landowner, who cautions:

“You have to understand the situation on the ground. Here, you'll meet a 15 year-old boy who has two wives. Or a 15 year-old girl who has two children of her own. So, for the purposes of child labor, do we consider them children or adults? They have families to provide for, and if their income is taken away, they will rebel.”[16] Likewise, Abram comments that he would prefer a seven year old child to attend school rather than working as a miner, but asks “[…] what if there’s no school within 100 kilometers?”[17]

Human stories such as the above do much to illuminate what lies behind the often difficult to grasp and abstract concepts of sustainability and ethics. Whilst there is a lot of jargon in the industry, it is important to bear in mind that behind all the policies, the standards, the definitions are people who live and work in often harsh and dangerous conditions, who want to earn a living for themselves and their families and that the circumstances in which they work and the fruit of their labour has a direct connection to my work as a jeweller here in the UK.

So, how does all the above fit into my thinking and current work? Listening to the Open House presentations (and discussions afterwards), reading various articles and distilling it by writing this blog helped to clarify my thoughts. Whilst it remains a vast field, I have started to understand the complexity of the interconnected issues that are at stake. As so often, simple solutions for complex problems do not exist and even tried and tested methods may need adjusting to fit new situations.

To sum up what makes jewellery ethical, Marc Choyt provides a good explanation:

 “[…] chain of custody, traceability, and transparency are all foundational to ethical practices but true ethical jewellery must have one other main feature—a focus on small-scale mining communities. […] For jewellery to be truly ethical, a jeweller should be able to confirm his or her purchase from these miners is actually maximizing benefit to their local economy.”[18]

Edward Fleming provides an even shorter, more succinct definition: “Ethical jewellery is jewellery that has been made with materials and using manufacturing processes that cause minimal harm to the environment and that benefit the communities involved.”[19]

As an independent jeweller and small business I have the power to make certain choices and whilst financial considerations play a significant part, I must weigh them against what is right. These choices do not just include the sourcing of precious metals and gemstones, but encompasses also studio practices and other activities that would contribute to making my work ethical. It remains an on-going process.

[1] See also today’s (31/3/3022) article in The Guardian (UK), Major jewellers to cease buying Russian-origin diamonds after increased scrutiny, Tess McClure  https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/31/major-jewellers-to-cease-buying-russian-origin-diamonds-after-increased-scrutiny as well as Guardian article Jewellery industry accused of silence over Russian diamonds, by Tess McClure, 29/3/2022 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/19/jewellery-industry-accused-of-silence-over-russian-diamonds

[2] https://www.levinsources.com/who-we-are/team/rachel-brass-cvcfg

[3] Are Fairmined and Fairtraide Elitist? Kyle Abram, 23 February 2022, https://ethicalmetalsmiths.org/blog/are-fairmined-and-fairtrade-gold-elitist

[4] World Bank. 2020. 2020 State of the Artisanal and Small Scale Mining Sector. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. The 2020 State of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sector is a collaboration between the World Bank’s Extractives Global Programmatic Support Multi-Donor Trust Fund and Pact. https://stateofthesector.delvedatabase.org/#KeyFindings

[5] World Bank. 2020; p90

[6] World Bank. 2020; p5

[7] Kyle Abram, 23 February 2022

[8] Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development (IGF). (2017). Global Trends in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): A review of key numbers and issues. Winnipeg: IISD. https://www.iisd.org/system/files/publications/igf-asm-global-trends.pdf

[9] See the map https://delvedatabase.org/data

[10] It is worth noting here too that the data sources for some countries seem quite old and one could assume that the current number is much higher.

[11]See SMO website: https://singlemineorigin.com/what-is-smo-gold/origins-of-smo/

[12] See here also Pioneers in Jewellery, Edward Fleming, 28 October 2021 https://www.ethicaljewelleryblog.com/home/pioneers-in-jewellery

[13]Pioneers in Jewellery, Edward Fleming, 28 October 2021 https://www.ethicaljewelleryblog.com/home/pioneers-in-jewellery

[14] The British company owning the gold mines. See https://www.hummingbirdresources.co.uk/

[15] https://singlemineorigin.com/what-is-smo-gold/smo-responsibility/

[16] Kyle Abram, 23 February 2022

[17] Kyle Abram, 23 February 2022

[18] What Makes Ethical Jewelry Ethical?, Marc Choyt, https://ethicalmetalsmiths.org/blog/what-makes-ethical-jewelry

[19] What is ethical jewellery?, Edward Fleming, 10 July 2021,  https://www.ethicaljewelleryblog.com/home/what-is-ethical-jewellery